顯示具有 QE 標籤的文章。 顯示所有文章
顯示具有 QE 標籤的文章。 顯示所有文章

2011年7月18日 星期一

金本位簡史


美國廢除金本位制已差不多40年,不過,自從1776年立國以來,聯邦政府大部分時間採用與貴金屬(黃金及白銀)掛鈎的貨幣政策。2008年金融海嘯後,聯儲局利用寬鬆貨幣政策刺激經濟不但成效不彰,國債急升更令美國主權信貸評級有降級之虞,近期美國不少重量級政經人士提出恢復金本位制,但金本位制真的是穩定經濟的靈丹妙藥?

去年11月11日G20於南韓召開環球金融及經濟會議之前3天,世銀行長佐利克(Robert Zoellick)在《金融時報》撰文呼籲,各國應考慮建立以黃金作為通脹、通縮及貨幣參考指標的國際貨幣體系。佐利克的建議無異於重返金本位制(gold standard)。總部在華盛頓的Peterson Institute for International Economics的Edwin Truman批評佐利克的提議沒有建設性兼不可行,Truman並取笑佐利克是活在歷史尤其是1980-92時代的人物。歐洲央行行長特里謝亦間接回應表示,各國央行早前在瑞士巴塞爾會議並沒有商討金本位制,據他記憶,上次提出類似意見的是1980年代的美國財長貝克(James Baker)。

不過,特里謝這次很快便聽見有人提到金本位制,著名雜誌《福布斯》總裁、1996及2000年兩度競逐共和黨總統候選人的商業大亨福布斯(Steve Forbes)今年5月初預測,美國將於5年內恢復金本位制,以改善日漸惡化的財政及貨幣失衡。他指出,在金本位制約束下,早年的樓市泡沫──寬鬆貨幣政策的部分產品──便不致那麼嚴重,因為政府要想如現在這般過度借貸將「困難得多」,聯儲局也受到限制不能任意印鈔;總之,恢復金本位制將有助穩定美元,重建外國投資者對美國政府債券的信心。

18日巴士巡遊

更高調鼓吹金本位制的行動接踵出現,6月13日,艾奧瓦茶黨(The Iowa Tea Party)和美國原則行動(American Principles in Action,APIA,非牟利民間組織,理念為宣揚及維護美國服膺的普世價值原則,例如人人生而平等,生命、自由、幸福不容剝奪)聯合贊助的18日巴士巡遊之旅啓程,駛經艾州多個城市宣揚金本位制,共和黨有意角逐2012年總統大選的6位最熱門人選亦參與巡遊,其中有前眾院議長金里奇(Newt Gingrich)、前新墨西哥州長Gary Johnson、前明尼蘇達州長Tim Pawlenty和前賓夕法尼州參議員Rick Santorum等,大會並安排金里奇和Santorum於7月2日在終點站Des Moines發表演說。

美國國會亦不時有提議恢復金本位制,有國會智囊團之稱的Congressional Research Service的Craig K. Elwell,今年6月23日特地就美國宏觀經濟政策發表題為Brief History of the Gold Standard in the United States報告(CRS報告);Elwell表明對金本位制並沒有預設立場,報告只是陳述美國的貨幣系統歷程作為政策參考資料。

CRS報告指出,美國早期採用金銀並行的雙金本位制(bimetallic standard),最早的《鑄幣法案》(Coinage Act of 1792)規定了面值1美元的銀幣純銀含量(重416 grains的銀幣含純銀371.25 grains),而黃金與白銀的兌換率法定為1比15。

黃金白銀輪番外流

就在1792年鑄幣法案通過後沒有多久,國際銀價兌黃金即貶值至15.5比1,結果導致黃金外流,換取更多白銀回國使用,因而1792至1834年美國基本以銀幣為主要流通貨幣。1834年,國會通過調高金銀兌換率至16比1(當時國際市場約為15.7比1),方法是減少金幣的純金含量,但這次雙金本位「滙率」改制令原本10美元相當於3712.5 grains白銀的債務,在美國本土用較少黃金便足以償付,於是大量白銀流向國際市場以較低滙價兌換黃金回國使用,其後三藩市和澳洲陸續發現新金礦,黃金供應大增令白銀更加「奇貨可居」,到1850年,金幣在美國成為主要貨幣,銀幣幾乎消失無蹤。1853年,政府修訂法案批准鑄造1美元以下的小額銀幣應市。

美國在南北戰爭(1861年4月12日至1865年4月9日)之前並沒有法定鈔票,但市面卻流通包括政府票據和銀行本票(bank notes)等紙貨幣,最早期例如1812年對抗英國的「第二次獨立戰爭」(War of 1812),政府為了籌募戰爭經費發行有利息的票據,並承諾將來憑票兌換黃金或白銀;銀行則利用「硬幣」資產槓桿發行持有人可以兌換黃金或白銀的本票,不過,部分銀行由於「商譽」問題,其發行的本票會以票面值折扣易手,事實上,銀行擠提(金或銀幣)亦時有發生。無論如何,政府票據和銀行本票的出現有若貨幣雙金本位制。

然而,由於內戰造成的財政壓力,政府很快發覺無法兌現以黃金或白銀贖回票據的承諾,銀行亦不再以黃金或白銀兌換本票。1862年政府根據《法定貨幣法案》或《綠背法案》(Legal Tender Acts或Greenback Acts)首次發行鈔票,市民可以利用這些法定貨幣(fiat money)在市場購買黃金或白銀,但政府不會向鈔票持有人兌換黃金或白銀,變相取消了雙金本位制。

真正的金本位制

內戰結束後,國會決定重新採用金本位制,經過1870年代連串辯論,聯邦政府在1878年通過為綠背設定約3.47億美元的發行上限,並釐定鈔票與金幣(不包括銀幣)的兌換價;1900年,政府通過的《金本位法案》(Gold Standard Act)再次確定黃金的地位,CRS報告將1879至1933年名為美國歷史上唯一的真正金本位制(A true gold standard)年代。

19世紀末,另一形式的紙幣——支票日漸通行全國,銀行只需存入少量現金於票據交換所(clearing agent)便可以簽發支票,而大多數支票交易都是在交換所收支互相沖銷,甚少涉及現金交易,而銀行內只會準備少量硬幣和鈔票以備客戶兌現,結果類似上世紀的擠提時有發生(尤其是現金需求特別緊張的農作物收成季節),有些銀行更被擠提而致倒閉。有見及此,政府於1913年成立聯邦儲備局,取代票據交換所的功能並負責調節貨幣供應。CRS報告強調,聯儲局的出現對金本位制無大影響,反而1930至1933年的銀行擠提浪潮使聯儲局也無法維持金融市場秩序。

羅斯福總統1933年3月入主白宮後,政府即推行多項新措施,包括取消鈔票兌換黃金權利,並將黃金國有化,以每盎斯20.67美元官價收購全國黃金後,嚴禁市民私藏黃金;羅斯福又運用1917年的《與敵通商法》(Trading With the Enemy Act of 1917)禁止銀行外滙交易或對外輸出黃金,同時將美元兌黃金大幅貶值40%,外國政府透過國際貿易只能以新的兌換價向美國政府換取黃金;其後羅斯福總統又根據Thomas修訂案(Thomas Amendment)賦予的權力,下令聯儲局加印鈔票至30億美元,1934年1月,金價升上每盎斯35美元。黃金只限於政府與政府之間的官方交易,CRS報告稱之為半金本位制(quasi-gold standard)的開始。

1944年,環球多國達成布列頓森林協議,外滙管制愈來愈寬鬆,各國貨幣可以自由兌換,黃金的地位進一步受到限制,國際貿易主要兌換為美元交收,國基會(IMF)的成立就是協助各國維持本國貨幣兌美元的穩定性,黃金已絕少用作國際貿易貨幣媒介。隨着國際貿易愈趨蓬勃以及各國經濟不同程度發展,貨幣危機經常發生,由於美元是穩定外滙市場(間接與黃金掛鈎)的主角,愈來愈多美元流入國際市場,1968年3月,美國政府廢除了聯儲局以黃金儲備作為印鈔的限制;而部分國家透過貿易賺取大量美元,美國金庫有被兌換一空的危機,聯邦政府迫得不明文禁止外國政府以美元兌換黃金。1972年12月,各國政府達成協議讓美元貶值,黃金官價由每盎斯35美元升至38美元,但美國從未以這價錢買賣黃金;1973年2月,財政部同意金價再升值至42.22美元,美元至此其實已變成自由浮動貨幣。1976年10月,美國正式宣布一項早已成為事實的法令:美元不能兌換黃金。

回復金本位的兩難

CRS報告回顧金本位制歷史指出,政府可以隨時利用行政命令改變金本位的定義,例子有1834年的金銀兌換價,甚至強制沒收黃金,例如羅斯福1933年的「新政」,而事實證明金本位制亦難以抵禦戰爭及國際或本土金融危機的衝擊。格林斯平於1981年9月(他當時是Townsend-Greenspan經濟顧問公司的合夥人,尚未被委任為聯儲局主席)在《華爾街日報》回應市場有聲音要求恢復金本位制的文章指出,重新實行金本位制即時要面對定價難題,財政部不論將金價定得太高或太低(或者其後證明太高或太低),都會造成一是大量黃金等着兌換美元,一是金庫被提空的隱憂。

看來福布斯、金里奇以至APIA等的言行即使沒有政治因素,但透過金本位強化美國經濟體系顯然是不切實際的期望。

2011年6月23日 星期四

View: Fed Can’t Save U.S., So Politicians Must

Ben Bernanke is running out of bullets. That should be a sobering fact for politicians still bent on playing games with the debt limit.

On national television today, the Federal Reserve chairman painted a picture of a recovery that, two years after it began, remains “frustratingly slow” and too weak to make a meaningful dent in joblessness anytime soon. Even if the current slowdown proves temporary, as the Fed expects, its forecast pace of growth won’t bring unemployment back down below 7 percent until after 2013.

Much more troubling is the country’s lack of a backup plan if things get worse. The economy’s weakness leaves it vulnerable to shocks of the kind that Europe’s festering sovereign-debt crisis could easily deliver. But neither the Federal Reserve nor the U.S. government is in a good position to provide more life support should it become necessary.

Having already spent some$2.3 trillion on two bond-buying program s aimed at lowering interest rates and boosting growth, Bernanke recognizes that the costs of a third round of so-called quantitative easing may outweigh the benefits.


For one, the recent acceleration in inflation presents a genuine risk, and also provides ammunition for political scare- mongering that could negate any positive effect on confidence and stock prices.

Record Cash Levels

What’s more, businesses and consumers don’t stand to gain much from slightly lower interest rates. Companies are already sitting on record levels of cash, and most homeowners who can refinance their mortgages have already done so. Further easing could give U.S. exporters an edge by pushing down the dollar’s exchange rate against other currencies, but that can only go so far before central bankers in other parts of the world retaliate.

Indeed, even the most recent $600 billion round of quantitative easing has had mixed results. It appears to have helped fend off deflation, but its effect on growth has been muted at best. The Fed currently expects the economy to grow at an inflation-adjusted rate of between 2.7 percent and 2.9 percent this year, down from an estimate of 3.4 percent to 3.9 percent in January.

The country’s only other emergency backup would be increased government spending. Already, economists at Goldman Sachs Group Inc. estimate that as the federal stimulus tapers off, the slowdown in spending will shave about half a percentage point from annualized economic growth in the second half of this year, and more next year.

Fiscal Stimulus

Done right, another $1 trillion or more in fiscal stimulus wouldn’t necessarily worsen the government’s debt burden. If, for example, massive, visible public-works spending managed to create jobs and improve confidence, stronger growth could ease the debt-to-GDP ratio automatically. This is unlikely to happen; the political currents are flowing in the opposite direction.

Fortunately, other approaches could have a similar effect: For maximum impact on jobs, the government might offer a tax credit commensurate to the number of new workers that firms add to their payrolls, as proposed by Alan Blinder, a Princeton University professor of economics.

Here, too, officials’ hands are tied. Unless politicians put the government’s long-term finances on a sustainable track by agreeing on how to rein in or pay for obligations such as Medicare and Medicaid, any extra spending now will look irresponsible. As countries from Russia to Greecehave learned, markets may react by driving up the interest rate the government must pay on its borrowings, making the debt much harder to bear. As Bernanke put it today: “I do think in my role as somebody who is extremely interested in financial stability, that addressing the medium-to-long-term deficit problem is very urgent.”

Realism and Clarity

Realism and clarity are what taxpayers, businesses and markets need from the political system. An agreement in principle on what part of society -- retirees, workers, employers, homeowners, consumers -- ultimately will pay to fix the government’s finances, either through cuts in services or higher taxes, would go a long way toward restoring confidence. It should include mechanisms that guarantee the fix will happen, yet allow some leeway if the economy worsens.

Instead, politicians are engaging in high-stakes haggling over immediate budget cuts as they approach an August deadline for raising the federal-debt limit. If they don’t reach a deal, they risk triggering immediate, sharp spending cuts and a downgrade of the U.S. government’s AAA credit rating. Such a shock could quickly erase the meager gains the U.S. economy has made in the course of the recovery.

Brinkmanship makes for good political theater, and can do wonders for individual politicians’ careers. Unfortunately, as Bernanke made clear on a sweltering day in Washington, it’s a luxury the U.S. can’t afford right now.

2011年6月21日 星期二

Commodity Prices and the Mistake of 1937: Would Modern Economists Make the Same Mistake?


Gauti Eggertsson

In 1937, on the eve of a major policy mistake, U.S. economic conditions were surprisingly similar to those in the nation today. Consider, for example, the following summary of economic conditions: (1) Signs indicate that the recession is finally over. (2) Short-term interest rates have been close to zero for years but are now expected to rise. (3) Some are concerned about excessive inflation. (4) Inflation concerns are partly driven by a large expansion in the monetary base in recent years and by banks’ massive holding of excess reserves. (5) Furthermore, some are worried that the recent rally in commodity prices threatens to ignite an inflation spiral.

While this summary arguably describes current trends, it is taken from an account of conditions in 1937 that appears in “The Mistake of 1937: A General Equilibrium Analysis,” an article I coauthored with Benjamin Pugsley. What we call “the Mistake of 1937” was, in broad terms, a decision by the Fed and the administration to implement a series of contractionary policies that choked off the recovery of 1933-37 and brought on the recession of 1937-38, one of the worst on record. What is particularly noteworthy is that the inflation fears that triggered the Mistake of 1937 were largely driven by a rally in commodity prices. These circumstances invite direct comparison with our own time, when a substantial recent rise in commodity prices (which now seems to be abating somewhat) stoked inflation fears and led some commentators to call for an increase in the federal funds rate.

The question for the contemporary reader is this: If we could transport a modern-day economist back to 1937, would he or she have made the same mistake? My suggested answer—admittedly somewhat hopeful—is no. I base this view on the fact that most economists today distinguish between the temporary movements in the consumer price index that stem from volatility in commodity prices and the movements that reflect fundamental inflation pressures. Hence a modern economist most likely would have identified the price rise in 1936 and 1937 as a temporary upswing in commodity prices that did not signal a significant increase in overall inflation.


The Mistake and Its Consequences

The Mistake of 1937 was a preemptive policy tightening in a fragile economic environment. Specifically, it was a decision to abandon the policy of “reflation” introduced in 1933. After prices tumbled during the 1929-33 depression, the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and the Federal Reserve made a commitment to increase the price level to pre-depression levels. (For more on this key initiative of the 1933-37 recovery period, see my article in the American Economic Review, “Great Expectations and the End of the Depression.”) The reflation policy was backed by an aggressive increase in government spending, the maintenance of large deficits, the abandonment of the gold standard, and monetary easing. If we accept the account of modern macroeconomic models, this reflationary policy mix can be very expansionary once the short-term interest rate is constrained at zero (as it was at the time). Why? Because at zero interest rates, if people start expecting that prices will rise instead of continuing to fall, the real rate of interest—a critical determinant of aggregate spending—turns from positive to negative. Thus, it becomes economical to spend money rather than save it. A further benefit of reflation is that it can repair balance sheets of overleveraged households and firms, a point explained in more detail in my recent paper with Paul Krugman, “Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap.”

The Mistake of 1937 was to relinquish the benefits of reflation and to set all policy levers in reverse. The Fed and key administration officials hinted at interest rate hikes and endorsed austerity in fiscal policy; the key concern now was containing inflation rather than sustaining recovery.

The effects of this policy reversal on prices and production are evident in the charts below. The top chart tracks the consumer price index (CPI) and the wholesale price index (WPI) over the period 1927-41, while the bottom chart plots the movements in industrial production over the same period. In both charts, the first vertical line marks the point at which FDR became president and announced a policy of reflation, while the second vertical line marks the Mistake of 1937. What we see in the top chart is that at the time in 1937 when the administration started warning that inflation was too high, the price level had not yet reached the pre-depression levels that had previously been the administration’s goal. Following this policy reversal, both prices and industrial production tumbled. The line indicating the “reversal of 1938” marks the point when the administration recommitted to inflating the price level to pre-depression levels. Significantly, this renewed commitment was followed by robust growth, as the bottom chart makes clear.


Chart1



Chart2



The Role of Commodity Prices

What prompted the inflation fears that led to the tightening of policy in 1937? A rally in commodity prices was largely responsible for triggering the concerns about inflation. As the chart below shows, prices of several commodities more than doubled in the span of only one year. These price increases led many policymakers to express concern about excessive inflation, as my paper with Pugsley documents.



Chart3


It is unlikely, however, that a modern economist put in the same position would respond to the commodity price rise in the same way. Economists today generally do not focus on commodity prices without regard to the behavior of the aggregate price index. The rally in the commodity markets in 1936 and 1937 seems to have been driven largely by temporary supply factors, rather than by upward pressures in the overall price level. This finding is borne out by the fact that while the price of some commodities (such as corn) more than doubled between 1936 and the Mistake of 1937, the CPI rose at a slower pace (see the first chart in this post), peaking at a 4.8 percent year-on-year rate in May 1937. What this reflects, I believe, is that while some components of the CPI were very volatile, the aggregate index was not moving much at all.

Fed economists today typically monitor various components of the CPI that are not influenced strongly by temporary supply disruptions. For example, one common measure tracked is “core CPI,” which excludes volatile food and energy prices from the overall CPI basket (see chart below). In early 2008, the economy started a downward spiral that culminated in a crisis. As the economy’s direction became increasingly clear, economists became more concerned about downward price pressures than about inflationary pressures. This shift paved the way for aggressive interest rate cuts that year, with rates ultimately declining to zero.


Chart4


At the same time, however, there was a temporary rally in commodity prices, driven by a rise in oil prices in early 2008, as can be seen in the figure above. This development prompted some commentators to warn against “excessive inflation.” But Fed economists and many others judged that the rise in prices was specific to commodities and did not signal an increase in overall price pressures. Largely ignoring the temporary rally in commodity prices, the Fed focused instead on core inflation and some alternative price measures that did not move much even as the CPI peaked in July 2008 at a year-on-year rate of 5.5 percent. This judgment proved to be correct: the larger trend in the aggregate price level during the crisis turned out to be downward, despite relatively volatile commodity markets during this period.

The bottom line, then, is that it is unlikely that a modern economist transported back in time to 1937 would have preemptively tightened policy on the scale that policymakers did at the time. Today’s economists, guided by economic research on general equilibrium models over the past several decades (see, for example, Eusepi, Hobjin, and Tambalotti), are a bit better at distinguishing movements in relative prices driven by temporary disruptions—such as the rally in commodity markets in 1937—from movements in core inflation, which may reflect broader inflation pressures.

美國會否重蹈1937年經濟錯判覆轍?


聯儲局6000億美元的QE2還有不到10日便「功德圓滿」。貝南奇在最近一次傳媒簡報會雖然並沒有提及QE3或QE的字眼,幸而他亦清楚表明經濟未見全面復蘇,聯儲局將維持寬鬆貨幣政策,否則,根據紐約聯儲銀行經濟師及學者的研究,聯儲局政策若含糊不清,可能導致美國陷入類似大蕭條之後的1937年雙底衰退。

羅斯福(Franklin Delano Roosevelt,任期1933年3月4日至1945年4月12日)與奧巴馬就任總統時美國經濟環境頗為相似,羅斯福面對的是華爾街崩潰後的大蕭條(Great Depression),而奧巴馬2009年1月接手的是金融海嘯後的爛攤子,羅斯福更於1937年遭遇另一次經濟衰退打擊。

紐約聯儲銀行經濟師Gauti B. Eggerstsson聯同芝加哥大學的Benjamin Pugsley分析,1937年衰退是財經決策者對經濟形勢錯判造成,並於2006年底發表The Mistake of 1937: A General Equilibrium Analysis研究報告(E&P報告);Eggerstsson又於今年6月1日在紐約聯儲銀行網頁以Commodity Prices and the Mistake of 1937: Would Modern Economists Make the Same Mistake為題,就聯邦政府當年的決策失誤加以補充分析。

入主白宮剛100日的羅斯福即推行有名的「新政」(New Deal)刺激經濟計劃,先後成立包括證券交易委員會(Securities and Exchange Commission,SEC)、聯邦存款保險公司(Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation,FDIC)及全國勞資關係委員會(National Labor Relations Board,NLRB)等目前仍然運作的多家機構,透過法例保障民眾的投資和促進就業。E&P報告指出,羅斯福宣布「新政」同時表示已簽署的《全國工業復興法》(National Industrial Recovery Act,NIRA,又名Act of June 16, 1933),更令1929至1933年大蕭條期間萎縮了30%的工業生產,其後4年回升達39%【圖1】;而反映通脹的消費價格指數則由1929至1933年下跌了25%(通縮),到1937年逐步爬升11%【圖2】。

公眾合理預期

E&P報告認為,1933至1937年經濟得以從極其不景氣中復蘇,與總統多次發放明確訊息強調政府會致力實行「通貨再膨脹政策」(reflationary policy,E&P報告又稱之為Reflationary regime,專為對抗通縮的行政手段),令物價回復到大蕭條之前的水平(變相刺激經濟增長),公眾相信政府會實現政策目標因而產生通脹預期有莫大關係;例如1933年5月1日,《華爾街日報》引述羅斯福表示「我們要從經濟及貨幣領域雙管齊下,推動商品價格普遍上升」,5月7日羅斯福又通過他始創的無線電台廣播節目「爐邊談話」(Fireside Chats),向國民重申刺激通脹的目標,公眾至此對政府的決心再無疑念,未來出現通脹成為合理預期。

然而,E&P報告指出,同樣由於公眾根據官方訊息而改變經濟前景的預期引致1937至1938年的急劇衰退。有見於經濟逐漸恢復增長,政府內部開始討論控制通脹,1935年11月21日,由各區聯儲銀行每區委任一名代表組成的聯邦諮詢委員會(Federal Advisory Council,FAC)向聯儲局建議,沽出聯儲局持有的政府債券或提高聯儲銀行的存款儲備金額(reserve requirement,類似現在人民銀行的存款準備金制度,美國銀行須從客戶存款扣起某個百分比存入聯儲局)以收緊銀根(cut excess reserves),但聯儲局直至翌年仲夏才接納FAC提高存款儲備金額建議,1936年8月15日開始生效。

1937年錯誤

1937年1月6日,羅斯福在國會發表的國情咨文提到:「蕭條雖已結束,但我們的任務還未完」(Your task and mine is not ending with the end of the depression),意思是政府依然面對棘手的失業問題,失業率仍高於大蕭條之前的水平。不過,行政機關當時普遍認為隨着工業生產潛力充分發揮,高失業問題很快便會解決。另一方面,聯儲局在1月31日宣布第二及第三輪抽緊銀根時間表,將在3月1日及5月1日分兩次增加存款儲備金額。

E&P報告認為,國情咨文及聯儲局的「加息」聲明都沒有片言隻字提到通脹問題,政府不清楚闡釋政策是1937年錯誤(Mistake of 1937)主要肇因。2月19日,《華爾街日報》引述聯儲局主席Marriner Eccles在國會聽證會表示「短期利率嚴重偏低【圖3】,而且看走勢愈來愈有可能會跌至零」,Eccles並表示增加儲備存款要求將帶動長期利率上升;《華日》評論指出,這是首次有聯儲局成員公開說明利用調控存款儲備防止利率下跌。3月16日Chicago Daily Tribune報道,Eccles認為「工資及物價旋轉式上升帶來的災難性後果,與物價旋轉式下降造成的通縮並無二致。」3月18日,商務部長及農業部長在不同的記者會齊聲警告小心高通脹;3月25日,Eccles向傳媒透露採取5項措施控制通脹。

最關鍵是4月2日,羅斯福在記者會明確表示「我關注——我們都關注部分物品價格上升」,再回顧Eccles的「加息」時間表和部門首長的言論,公眾到現在才驟然覺醒政府早已由「通貨再膨脹政策」轉為防止通脹升温的「通縮政策」(deflation policy或Deflationary regime),未來息口只有上升一途,公眾亦由通脹預期轉為通縮預期,影響所及,股市在總統記者會當日應聲急挫6%,其後6個月損失了接近50%市值【圖4】。E&P報告統計,由於政策失誤造成的1937年5月至1938年5月底的前後13個月經濟衰退,國民生產總值(GNP)收縮了9%,工業生產跌幅達32%,主要商品價格亦無一不跌【圖5】;直至1938年2月15日,羅斯福於記者會重申他就職之初的政策,認為物價應回復到1926年大蕭條之前的水平,其後又頒布多項刺激經濟措施,包括指示Eccles將存款儲備金額減至1936年水平(E&P將2月至5月這段日子稱為政策轉向,Reversal of 1938),物價由6月開始才恢復穩定【圖6】,經濟逐漸復蘇。

過早加息行動

E&P報告又提出一個值得思考的觀點:在零利率的環境中,公眾對未來通脹預期輕微改變也可以引致通脹和產量大幅度波動。E&P報告舉例說明:假設全體公眾相信政府的通脹目標是4%,而政府每次改變政策都必定有傳媒報道【圖7】,只要公眾透過新聞解讀認為政府在兩年內有5%機會將通脹目標降至零,根據E&P設計的數學方程式模型計算,僅僅這5%的公眾預期轉變便足以令產量雙位數下跌和出現通縮。當然,公眾預期——即使在零息環境——的「威力」是否如此巨大則見仁見智。

紐約聯儲銀行網頁6月1日上載Eggerstsson的短文認為,「1937年錯誤」基本原因是當時對通脹判斷錯誤所致,在經濟尚未穩定看見少數商品漲價便急急收緊貨幣政策,但現今絕大部分經濟學者都清楚知道,商品價格短期波動會影響消費物價指數,不會與基本通脹混淆,例如聯儲局只會注視核心消費物價指數(core CPI,一籃子成分中不包括價格經常大上大落的食品和能源等消費品),2008年早期石油價格急升,不少評論員警告「高通脹」將至,但聯儲局一眾經濟師不為所動,最後亦證明他們的判斷正確。

投資者可以由core CPI升跌便測知貝南奇會不會QE3,從而作出相應投資部署?

策劃:信報研究部

撰文:徐天任


放大圖片


放大圖片


放大圖片


放大圖片


放大圖片


放大圖片

2010年10月26日 星期二

4萬億美元,你discount咗未?

■近日陸續有新股上市,各位投資者有為如何選擇而煩惱嗎?今日「DNA」一欄為大家對本周推出的新股作出一個小總結,並提出了三種策略以供參考。請留意第34頁。

■初哥上路總是會遇到挫折的,國企也不例外。由於承辦海外工程的經驗不足,中鐵建(1186)最近宣布在中東的輕軌項目出現龐大虧損,辛思維在25頁的「冷熱財庫」專欄中,為我們作出剖析。

■香港樓價升至天高,升斗小市民即使能夠入市也大都淪為房奴,一生為供樓而活。筆銘在27頁的專欄中分析箇中原因,並提出了一些建議,例如加設炒樓稅,希望可以壓抑樓市炒風。

10月26日,周二。隔晚美股造好,周末的二十國集團(G20)財長會議未能確立削減貿易失衡目標,市場又預期聯儲局將會推出新一輪量化寬鬆(QE2)貨幣政策,拖累美元下跌,加上美國二手樓銷售較預期強勁,均支持大市向上,但尾市上升動力減弱。道指收市上升31點,納指高收11點。港股高開近一百點,迅即掉頭回落,其後於23600點水平上落。恒指全日輕微下跌26點或0.1%,收市報23601點,成交金額833億元。國企指數逆市高收16點或0.1%,收報13642點。期指下跌90點,收報23167點,高水幅度縮窄至16點。

聯儲局一周後議息,市場對次輪量寬(QE2)規模多大,眾說紛紜,但可以肯定的是,揭盅如果只有5000億美元,那便跟「無事發生」沒有多大分別,皆因資產價格跑在QE2之前,buy on rumors,sell on facts,5000億美元曾幾何時是「天文數字」,但今時今日,點夠撐起個市?

怎樣才夠、有無數計?這個問法,就好像在說聯儲局所做的一切,都是為了頂住資產市場,未免與事實不符,但在銀紙(美元)供應愈來愈多價值貶個不停下,QE(不管多少輪)一個毋庸置疑的效果,就是逼人投身股海以至實物,竭盡所能避免購買力受到摧殘。

聯邦基金利率 -6.8%?

老畢沒有未卜先知之能,但市場上叻人甚多,高盛就計過條數,認為次輪量寬一經啟動,聯儲局將分階段購入總值2萬億至4萬億美元的國債和其他資產。這個估算準確與否,有待事實證明;更值得注意的是,高盛根據什麼得出這個結果。

該行認為,目前0-0.25厘的聯邦基金利率,跟聯儲局用作制訂利率水平的「泰勒法則」(the Taylor Rule)揭示的聯邦基金利率水平高了700點子(7厘)。以0.2厘為當前聯邦基金利率的參考水平,高盛的話等於說,按照「泰勒法則」(利率處於哪一水平,視乎實際通脹率和失業率各自偏離目標多遠),聯邦基金利率的「適當」水平應為負6.8厘(0.2%-7%= -6.8%)。由於名義(nominal)利率已降無可降(實際上也不可能處於負數),聯儲局得通過非傳統手段(主要是購買國債和按揭抵押證券),以達到等同於把聯邦基金利率下調至負6.8厘的寬鬆政策效果。

值得注意的是,在這700點子的利率差距中,聯儲局首輪量寬(QE1)加上其他刺激經濟措施,已經成功「填補」了當中約400點子(根據高盛的計算,QE1佔130點子、政府財政刺激措施佔240點子、聯儲局承諾維持超低利率一段長時間佔餘下的30點子,合共400點子)。換句話說,假設奧巴馬政府不再推出新的財政措施,刺激經濟的責任由聯儲局一力承擔,央行購買資產的規模,便必須足以填補上述700點子中尚未「處理」的300點子(700點子-400點子=300點子),意味聯儲局購買資產的規模,必須產生等同於減息3厘的政策效果。

高盛如何得出聯儲局在次輪(或更多)量寬中須購入2萬億至4萬億美元資產的結論,相信是投資者最感興趣的問題。條數是這樣計的:每1萬億美元等同於減息75點子(0.75厘),要達到聯邦基金利率再下調3厘之效,聯儲局須購入合共4萬億美元資產(每1萬億美元相當於75點子,屈指一算,4萬億美元便等於300點子了)。

不過,QE說到底都不是常規貨幣政策,執行起來涉及的成本高於傳統減息手段,例如聯儲局資產負債表不斷擴大,一旦按市值入賬(mark-to-market),不排除錄得數額不菲的虧損。如此一來,央行在跟國會周旋時,難免陷入窘境,嚴重處足以影響聯儲局的獨立性;至於貨幣基礎一再擴大,為通脹於未來急劇惡化埋下伏筆,更不待言。考慮到這一點,高盛為新一輪QE的實際規模打了一個「折頭」;雖則中間落墨,但聯儲局在新一輪量寬中購入的資產,規模仍不會少於2萬億美元。

美國本土股票互惠基金雖不斷錄得資金淨流出(持續了多少個月,老畢已記不起,總之有一蹶不振之象),但從新興市場股債盛況以至破紀錄的資金流入可見,散戶並非對銀紙貶值購買力每下愈況無動於中,而是一窩蜂地從美國和其他成熟市場,湧到經濟前景更佳投資回報更豐厚兼且滙率具上升潛力的新興市場,亞洲就多得美國唔少。

然而,正如前述,今天對企業估值舉足輕重的,已不再是公司盈利,而是投資者discount了多大規模的QE。毒會上癮酒會上癮,量化寬鬆政策雖非為推高資產市場而設,但今日股債商品已形同上了酒癮毒癮的人,QE「劑量」稍有不足,市場恐怕立時就潰不成軍。

就如企業派成績表,「符合預期」、「勝於預期」、「不如預期」,對股市的影響差之毫釐謬以千里;但願不是所有人都像高盛這般「計數」,discount了最少2萬億、最多4萬億美元的QE,否則股市就凶多吉少了。

股神估值方法大揭秘

股神畢非德是日「紅爆」財經版,皆因有關股神、其投資旗艦巴郡、中國投資項目比亞迪(1211)的新聞消息,實在是多不勝數。先講近期強勢畢露的汽車板塊,比亞迪派發首九個月成績單,純利僅僅上升4%,至24.33億元人民幣。首三季業績輕微增長僅是小事一樁,但計一計第三季才知道「大件事」,純利暴瀉達到最差劣的九成九,僅賺得1134萬元人仔,令市場大跌眼鏡。

歸咎「死因」,比亞迪的汽車銷量下跌是致命傷,繼8月份同比下滑19%至3.11萬輛之後,其9月份同比再下降25%至3.31萬輛。比亞迪稍早前已經推遲了向美國市場出口電動汽車的計劃,本月則因違法佔地被罰款兼沒收已建成的七幢廠房,盈利下跌算是雪上加霜。比亞迪被基金洗倉,以接近全日最低位51.05元收市,跌幅高達10.3%。

另一邊廂,持有比亞迪作為投資的巴郡,被視為股神熱門候選接班人之一的李祿,忽然拒絕「接棒」。李祿決定維持現狀,繼續在美國擔當對沖基金經理,與另一名屬意繼任人一道,先後退出競逐之列。股神惟有物色名不見經傳,39歲的對沖基金經理托德庫姆斯(Todd Combs),出任巴郡的投資經理。

據報,庫姆斯會先負責管理巴郡1000億美元資產的一部分投資,與其現時在Castle Point Capital管理約4億美元的金融服務業股票比較,能否勝任還得走着瞧!

最後要講到的,是股神的「價值投資法」。股神一直深得投資者的景仰,主要是其把握入市時機的準繩度,可以說得上數一數二。而股神對股市的估值方法,又是否深不可測呢?股神早已在2001年的《財富》雜誌中,向投資者公開其估值的秘訣,老畢在此再引用一番,以公諸同好。

原來股神的估值方法相當簡單,以美國所有上市股票的市值除以國民生產總值(GNP)【圖】,所計算出的百分比將可反映一切。若然比率升至空前的高水平的話,即在股市賺取的回報已超越整體經濟的增長速度,事情於理不合,代表強烈的警告訊號已經發出。股神認為,當比率跌到70%至80%的水平,股市實屬便宜;相反,當比率升至接近200%,即1999至2000年科網股泡沫爆破時間,投資者還在投資股市的話,與玩火無異。看一看附圖,比率正由低位60%,悄悄回升至超過100%。根據股神的說法,現階段而言,美股略嫌偏貴了。