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2011年6月26日 星期日

Economic growth must slow, warns BIS

By Norma Cohen and Chris Giles in London

Global economic growth must slow to curb inflationary pressure around the world, the influential central bankers’ bank has warned, saying that there was little or no slack left for rapid non-inflationary expansion.

In its annual report, the Bank for International Settlements said that with the scope for rapid growth closing, monetary policy should be quickly brought back to normal and countries should act urgently to close budget deficits.

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The tough recommendations were urged on advanced and emerging economies alike from the BIS – the international organisation which came closest to predicting the 2008-09 financial and economic crisis – despite signs of weakening economic momentum this year.

The spike in energy prices has cooled the global economy since January and led to fears for the recovery, culminating in the International Energy Agency’s release of 60m barrels of oil in the coming month.

The BIS report, however, warned policymakers not to expect a normal recovery because much of the pre-crisis growth had been unsustainable and capacity will have been destroyed for ever, particularly in finance and construction.

Jaime Caruana, general manager of the BIS, said on Sunday that the imbalances caused by unsustainable growth before the crisis “now need to be rectified, and as they are, growth is bound to be slow. Policymakers should not hinder this inevitable adjustment.”

Rising food, energy and other commodity prices underscored the need for central banks around the world to begin raising interest rates, perhaps even more rapidly than they brought them down, said the BIS in its report. “Highly accommodative monetary policies are fast becoming a threat to price stability,” it concluded.

The fact that interest rates have been so low for so long also introduces new risks into the world’s financial system even though these policies were put in train initially by a desire to reduce risk, the report added.

“The persistence of very low interest rates in major advanced economies delays the necessary balance sheet adjustments of households and financial institutions,” the BIS said.

The BIS view runs counter to that of the Federal Reserve, its largest member central bank, which made it clear last week that its interest rates would remain extremely low for an “extended period”.

Its recommendations are closest to the policy of European Central Bank, which is expected to raise interest rates for a second time in early July. In a barb at the Bank of England, the BIS said inflation had persistently exceeded its 2 per cent target since the end of 2009, but that rates have not yet been raised in response. “One wonders how long its current policy can be sustained,” the BIS said.


2011年6月21日 星期二

Commodity Prices and the Mistake of 1937: Would Modern Economists Make the Same Mistake?


Gauti Eggertsson

In 1937, on the eve of a major policy mistake, U.S. economic conditions were surprisingly similar to those in the nation today. Consider, for example, the following summary of economic conditions: (1) Signs indicate that the recession is finally over. (2) Short-term interest rates have been close to zero for years but are now expected to rise. (3) Some are concerned about excessive inflation. (4) Inflation concerns are partly driven by a large expansion in the monetary base in recent years and by banks’ massive holding of excess reserves. (5) Furthermore, some are worried that the recent rally in commodity prices threatens to ignite an inflation spiral.

While this summary arguably describes current trends, it is taken from an account of conditions in 1937 that appears in “The Mistake of 1937: A General Equilibrium Analysis,” an article I coauthored with Benjamin Pugsley. What we call “the Mistake of 1937” was, in broad terms, a decision by the Fed and the administration to implement a series of contractionary policies that choked off the recovery of 1933-37 and brought on the recession of 1937-38, one of the worst on record. What is particularly noteworthy is that the inflation fears that triggered the Mistake of 1937 were largely driven by a rally in commodity prices. These circumstances invite direct comparison with our own time, when a substantial recent rise in commodity prices (which now seems to be abating somewhat) stoked inflation fears and led some commentators to call for an increase in the federal funds rate.

The question for the contemporary reader is this: If we could transport a modern-day economist back to 1937, would he or she have made the same mistake? My suggested answer—admittedly somewhat hopeful—is no. I base this view on the fact that most economists today distinguish between the temporary movements in the consumer price index that stem from volatility in commodity prices and the movements that reflect fundamental inflation pressures. Hence a modern economist most likely would have identified the price rise in 1936 and 1937 as a temporary upswing in commodity prices that did not signal a significant increase in overall inflation.


The Mistake and Its Consequences

The Mistake of 1937 was a preemptive policy tightening in a fragile economic environment. Specifically, it was a decision to abandon the policy of “reflation” introduced in 1933. After prices tumbled during the 1929-33 depression, the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and the Federal Reserve made a commitment to increase the price level to pre-depression levels. (For more on this key initiative of the 1933-37 recovery period, see my article in the American Economic Review, “Great Expectations and the End of the Depression.”) The reflation policy was backed by an aggressive increase in government spending, the maintenance of large deficits, the abandonment of the gold standard, and monetary easing. If we accept the account of modern macroeconomic models, this reflationary policy mix can be very expansionary once the short-term interest rate is constrained at zero (as it was at the time). Why? Because at zero interest rates, if people start expecting that prices will rise instead of continuing to fall, the real rate of interest—a critical determinant of aggregate spending—turns from positive to negative. Thus, it becomes economical to spend money rather than save it. A further benefit of reflation is that it can repair balance sheets of overleveraged households and firms, a point explained in more detail in my recent paper with Paul Krugman, “Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap.”

The Mistake of 1937 was to relinquish the benefits of reflation and to set all policy levers in reverse. The Fed and key administration officials hinted at interest rate hikes and endorsed austerity in fiscal policy; the key concern now was containing inflation rather than sustaining recovery.

The effects of this policy reversal on prices and production are evident in the charts below. The top chart tracks the consumer price index (CPI) and the wholesale price index (WPI) over the period 1927-41, while the bottom chart plots the movements in industrial production over the same period. In both charts, the first vertical line marks the point at which FDR became president and announced a policy of reflation, while the second vertical line marks the Mistake of 1937. What we see in the top chart is that at the time in 1937 when the administration started warning that inflation was too high, the price level had not yet reached the pre-depression levels that had previously been the administration’s goal. Following this policy reversal, both prices and industrial production tumbled. The line indicating the “reversal of 1938” marks the point when the administration recommitted to inflating the price level to pre-depression levels. Significantly, this renewed commitment was followed by robust growth, as the bottom chart makes clear.


Chart1



Chart2



The Role of Commodity Prices

What prompted the inflation fears that led to the tightening of policy in 1937? A rally in commodity prices was largely responsible for triggering the concerns about inflation. As the chart below shows, prices of several commodities more than doubled in the span of only one year. These price increases led many policymakers to express concern about excessive inflation, as my paper with Pugsley documents.



Chart3


It is unlikely, however, that a modern economist put in the same position would respond to the commodity price rise in the same way. Economists today generally do not focus on commodity prices without regard to the behavior of the aggregate price index. The rally in the commodity markets in 1936 and 1937 seems to have been driven largely by temporary supply factors, rather than by upward pressures in the overall price level. This finding is borne out by the fact that while the price of some commodities (such as corn) more than doubled between 1936 and the Mistake of 1937, the CPI rose at a slower pace (see the first chart in this post), peaking at a 4.8 percent year-on-year rate in May 1937. What this reflects, I believe, is that while some components of the CPI were very volatile, the aggregate index was not moving much at all.

Fed economists today typically monitor various components of the CPI that are not influenced strongly by temporary supply disruptions. For example, one common measure tracked is “core CPI,” which excludes volatile food and energy prices from the overall CPI basket (see chart below). In early 2008, the economy started a downward spiral that culminated in a crisis. As the economy’s direction became increasingly clear, economists became more concerned about downward price pressures than about inflationary pressures. This shift paved the way for aggressive interest rate cuts that year, with rates ultimately declining to zero.


Chart4


At the same time, however, there was a temporary rally in commodity prices, driven by a rise in oil prices in early 2008, as can be seen in the figure above. This development prompted some commentators to warn against “excessive inflation.” But Fed economists and many others judged that the rise in prices was specific to commodities and did not signal an increase in overall price pressures. Largely ignoring the temporary rally in commodity prices, the Fed focused instead on core inflation and some alternative price measures that did not move much even as the CPI peaked in July 2008 at a year-on-year rate of 5.5 percent. This judgment proved to be correct: the larger trend in the aggregate price level during the crisis turned out to be downward, despite relatively volatile commodity markets during this period.

The bottom line, then, is that it is unlikely that a modern economist transported back in time to 1937 would have preemptively tightened policy on the scale that policymakers did at the time. Today’s economists, guided by economic research on general equilibrium models over the past several decades (see, for example, Eusepi, Hobjin, and Tambalotti), are a bit better at distinguishing movements in relative prices driven by temporary disruptions—such as the rally in commodity markets in 1937—from movements in core inflation, which may reflect broader inflation pressures.

2011年6月20日 星期一

America flirts with a fate like Japan’s

The stalling of the US recovery raises big, scary questions. After a recession, this economy usually gets people back to work quickly. Not this time. Progress is so slow, the issue is not so much when America will return to full employment but what “full employment” will mean by the time it does.

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The administration thinks the pace of recovery will pick up soon. Last week President Barack Obama called the pause a “bump in the road”. Others think the slowdown will persist and might get worse, fears that cannot be dismissed. One alarming possibility is that the traits the US has relied on to drive growth in the past – labour market flexibility, rapid productivity growth – might have become toxic. If the US is unlucky, traits seen as distinctive strengths are now weaknesses, and a “lost decade” of stagnation, like Japan’s in the 1990s, might lie ahead.

The mainstream view is more optimistic and goes as follows. The recovery in the first half of the year was weak but special or temporary factors were to blame: bad weather, the timing of defence expenditures, the phasing out of fiscal support, the Japanese earthquake, the oil-price surge, worries over Europe’s debt, and so on. Together these could have cut 1.5 percentage points from growth in the first half of this year, yielding a feeble 2 per cent – too slow to put a dent in unemployment.

Some of those factors should fade in the second half, letting the growth rate recover to between 3 and 4 per cent. That would be disappointing with so much ground to make up – though unemployment would be falling, albeit slowly. Even optimists acknowledge it will take a while for consumers to cut debt to comfortable levels, for the housing market to stabilise, and for other aftershocks of the Great Recession to be worked out. But, in the end, the economy will bounce back and close the gap between actual and potential output.

Strong productivity growth, reflecting the US economy’s famous ability to cut jobs promptly, is central in all this. Potential output is growing even as actual output and employment stutter. This hurts now, the optimists acknowledge, but when conditions improve workers will be rehired. A low-friction labour market is fast to hire as well as to fire, and American companies will take up the slack quickly once conditions allow. In the end, US labour-market exceptionalism will deliver new jobs and strong growth as in the past.

But will it? Two things might work differently this time. First, since the recession was unusually deep and the recovery unusually slow, the US is experiencing unheard-of long-term unemployment rates. The housing slump and its associated plague of negative equity aggravate this by making it harder for the unemployed to move to find work. Long-term joblessness erodes skills and employability. Structural unemployment is surely inching closer to European levels. America has not been here before.

As Financial Times columnist Martin Wolf recently pointed out, after a recession such as this you can make a case for welcoming low productivity growth if it keeps more people in work. Better to spread the pain around through short-time working, he argued, than cut jobs. In a new paper, Robert Gordon of Northwestern University makes essentially the same point. He shows that in the past quarter-century the US labour market has become markedly more exceptional – more organised around the “disposable worker”. Management thinking and declining unions have driven friction ever lower, while employment subsidies and regulation have made Europe’s labour markets stickier. The Great Recession and its surge of long-term unemployment are a severe test of what was once seen as a distinctive US economic strength.

The second danger also works through productivity, but arises from the role played by debt in this cycle. Under circumstances such as today’s, with households striving to cut debt and interest rates at zero, economies can behave in strange ways. In a paper last year, Paul Krugman of Princeton and The New York Times, and Gauti Eggertsson of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York drew attention to the possibility of a paradox of toil”, akin to the paradox of thrift (whereby if everyone tries to save more, the economy shrinks and so does aggregate saving). The logic of the paradox of toil is simple. Suppose the supply of labour increases, or productivity rises. Initially, prices would tend to fall. If nominal interest rates are stuck at zero, the real interest rate and burden of debt both rise. This leads overleveraged consumers to cut spending still more. Demand is not just slow to respond: the economy shrinks.

It is a peculiar world where higher productivity reduces output; and willingness to accept wage cuts worsens unemployment (which Mr Krugman and Mr Eggertsson call the “paradox of flexibility”). The idea that easy hiring and firing might permanently raise long-term unemployment is less bizarre, but still not something the US has needed to worry about in the past.

A gradually improving recovery would put things right side up. US strengths would be strengths again. But a prolonged slowdown, with consumers still not on top of their debts, might be self-reinforcing. Some would say this has already begun, hence the pause. The optimists say no, not yet – and they had better be right.


為什麼干預勞工市場會帶來沉重代價?


我在本報幾次提過經濟史學家諾貝爾獎得主伏格爾(Robert Fogel)去年著名的預測:到了2040年,中國GDP佔全球GDP 40%,美國佔14%(美國人口約等於中國的四分一),歐盟則只佔5%。這種預測,若是二十年前被提出,恐怕絕大多數人都會嗤之以鼻,但現在美國有識之士中,或許已有大比例的人相信中國GDP超越美國將會是無可避免的現實。較少為人注意的是,歐盟真的會這麼差勁,三十年後經濟板塊只萎縮到美國的三分一?

歐洲工人平均工時急跌

伏格爾把歐洲看扁,我對他的看法本是半信半疑。歐洲科技發達,教育水準遠高於中國,充滿藝術細胞的能人異士所在多有,怎會墮落至GDP只等於中國的八分一?但我翻閱過一些數據及近年的文獻後,卻不能不認為伏格爾的看法洞察力非凡。歐洲的確是出了大問題,去年我們所見到的歐債危機或許只是先兆,未來經濟上的困境恐怕會不斷浮現。

歐洲的主要困局是,她的勞工市場從六七十年代開始逐步出現了不易改正的結構性難題。港人若不懂得汲取歐洲的經驗,趨吉避凶,則後果堪虞。

1960年法國十五至六十四歲人口中,平均每人每周工作二十九點八小時。為什麼工作時間這麼短?原因是在這些統計數字中,有相當一部分人根本沒有工作,所以把平均數拉低。不過,低處未算低,到了2000年,法國適齡工作人口中,平均每周工作時數降至十九點三小時,跌幅35.2%。這現象並非孤立,在同一時期德國從二十八點七小時跌至十九點八小時,跌幅31%,意大利跌幅32.3%、比利時29.2%、英國28.8%等等,但美國卻反而上升了10%。這種現象啟發了諾獎得主普雷斯蓋特(Edward Prescott)在2004年寫了篇論文:〈為什麼美國人比歐洲人勤力得多?〉

這些跌幅是巨大的,在商業周期的研究中,經濟學家早已發現,勞動力的投入只要減少3%左右便足以引發頗為嚴重的經濟衰退。30%左右的勞動力跌幅,雖云在四十年內慢慢體現,但已足以「陰乾」歐洲的經濟。為什麼歐洲人變得這麼「懶惰」?

大批人口不工作等政府養

其實歐洲人的「變懶」,主要並非擁有工作的人把每周的工時縮短(法國的法定標準工時則的確有減短工作的時間),數據顯示,是就業的人口比例不斷下降。換言之,有大批人口長期不參與工作,等待政府的扶養。此種情況,失業率的統計數字也反映不出來,原因是長期不參與工作的人根本沒有去找工作,所以在統計意義上他們並不納入失業人口!

歐盟諸國高企的最低工資,顯然是推低歐洲人工作時數的原因之一。不少勞工的邊際生產力低於最低工資,僱主怎會覺得物有所值花錢去僱用他們?就業率下跌(如上所說,失業率數字反映不了真實情況,這是很多評論人所沒有注意到的)在一時一刻不一定很突出,但多年積累下來的後果卻可以很嚴重。長期找不到工作的人,其技能與工作意志難免衰退,更難再投入勞動市場。王于漸兄在4月29日本報的大文中,亦有指出最低工資是造成南非種族歧視的元兇。在歐洲也好,在香港也好,最低工資正可創造低技術弱勢勞工被長期歧視的環境,使他們難以翻身。

最低工資在港剛剛實施,亂象已經叢生,傳媒亦有廣泛報道。我在2006及2008年在本報共只寫過兩篇關於最低工資的文章,但內中所論及的最低工資所帶來的後果(例如大財團不怕最低工資,中小企卻受害最深)已不斷應驗。政府及一些最低工資的支持者誤以為這只是磨合期的困難,在經濟規律面前,這只可能是一廂情願的看法。是否如此,我們大可拭目以待。

歐洲有最低工資,美國也有,為什麼歐洲人「變懶」的速度又比美國快?

我在明尼蘇達大學研究院的同期師兄、現任普林斯頓經濟學教授的羅傑信(Richard Rogerson)在去年出版的新書對此有詳盡分析【註】,我近來才注意到,羅兄被普林斯頓羅致後,此名牌大學的五位宏觀經濟教授中,有四位都是明尼蘇達出身的師友,再加上鄰近的紐約大學的沙琴德(Tom Sargent)偶爾到訪,不懂當代宏觀經濟學的克魯明,在其大本營中,似乎對宏觀經濟已失去了話語權。金融海嘯後,行內人所稱的「明尼蘇達宏觀」影響力不消反長。

羅傑信在書中指出,歐洲人的工作參與率下降,主要原因不是歐洲人生性浪漫熱愛生活情趣等等「文化」因素造成,而是歐洲對勞動收入所直接間接抽取的有效稅率比美國高得多。

以前也有人認為勞動力的有效稅率雖然對勞動參與率有負面影響,但作用不大。他們所根據的是,美國從六十年代到二十一世紀,稅率雖也有提升,但勞動參與率並無下降。羅傑信指出,這些人所用的方法不對,在此期間,尤其是九十年代,美國的生產力突飛猛進,抵消了稅率上升的效果,而且稅率也只增加了6.5個百分點,遠遠低於OECD諸國的16.5個百分點,所以其效果沒法被體現出來。反觀歐洲,情況則大不一樣。

高稅率打擊勞動參與率

在1960年,美國對勞動入息的平均有效稅率是22.1%,而OECD成員的平均稅率是相當接近的25.4%。在當時,美國十五至六十四歲人口(包括沒有工作的人口)平均每周的工作時數是二十三點七小時,OECD成員國的平均是二十八點一小時,反映出歐洲人當時比美國人更加勤奮,歐洲的享受生活文化因素毫不重要。但到了2000年,美國的有效稅率增幅遠及不上歐洲,後者的稅率等閒升至收入的五成。在如此高稅的環境下,歐洲的一些主要國家工作的平均時數應聲下跌三成左右。稅率對工作時數的影響,並非如某些人所以為的似有若無,而是非常巨大。

荷蘭的例子十分有用。她的稅率從五十年代中開始不斷上升,到1985年左右則慢慢下降。荷蘭的平均工作時數從1960年開始一直下降,至八十年代後期則轉勢上升。這正好印證了對勞動入息徵稅,會打擊就業,而且打擊頗為嚴重。據普雷斯蓋特在另一篇論文的估計,有效稅率每提高一個百分點,工作時數就會下降三個百分點,以經濟學的術語說,勞動供應量的「彈性系數」等於3,讀過經濟學的都知道這是很高的彈性。

這些結果意味着政府對勞動市場的干預會帶來沉重的代價,而且結果與政策目標往往背道而馳。稅率增加了,是否等於政府有更多的收入,更易收支平衡?看來不是。歐盟諸國的有效稅率等閒等於入息的五成,工作愈勤奮便愈會被稅局用重稅懲罰,大家哪會樂意在市場努力工作賺錢?有不少研究發現,德國、法國、意大利、比利時諸國的人民用在家裏煮食的時間遠比美國人長,在外吃飯要工作賺回來的錢支付,而賺錢若要交重稅,則不如躲在家裏生產膳食來得划算,後者不用交稅。既然增稅會推低在市場中的工作時數,不但GDP因少了市場生產而下降,人民及政府的收入亦會水退船低。

「隨收隨支」制損工作意欲

另一少為人注意的是西方的「隨收隨支」退休保障制度也會因此而出現財困,就算人口沒有老化,扶養率不低,也可能出現這情況。「隨收隨支」制也是一種福利制度,它通過加稅而支付退休福利的開支,但加稅卻會使更多的人不願工作,大家寧願當「懶人」領取福利,久而久之,誰願為冤大頭去工作賺錢?

據報道,香港一些大專畢業生竟不願打工賺錢,滿足於領取綜援以便自己可以過「創意生活」,這豈不正是歐洲的問題已在港浮現?普雷斯蓋特在2004年已建議要逐步取消「隨收隨支」制,引入公積金儲蓄制,原因之一正是他看到「隨收隨支」制所帶來的稅務負擔,會蠶食掉人民的工作意欲。

干預勞動市場的另一例子是設立所謂的「標準工時」,我在去年7月5日在本報已發表過一篇〈「標準工時」會否僵化勞動市場?〉的文章,對此問題詳加討論,在此只補充一點。

在不同的工種中,工作時間的有效性可以千差萬別。例如,在學術研究中,發現一個新結果前的突破階段,研究人員往往要不眠不休地苦思數日夜,你要搞什麼最高工時,打斷他們的思路,他們只會把你趕走。但另一些工種卻使人體力困頓,工作時間長了效率低甚至出現危險,飛機師便是。

由此可知,搞些一刀切的「標準工時」,名義上是為勞工福利着想,實際效果卻是以計劃經濟的心態胡亂破壞生產活動。不過,就算實施「標準工時」,也不見得工作人口一生中的總工作時間必然因而下降。平時工作時間不足,生產下降,賺不到足夠的錢,退休的年齡會因此被推後,補回過去減少的工作。政府並無權力替人民決定他們平時應工作多長時間及工作多少年才能退休。

我對香港人的見識抱有信心。香港一些經濟文盲式的政客雖胡亂提議如何如何干擾勞動市場,效果正如要一頭蠻牛在瓷器店中橫衝直撞,打破瓷器無數。但這樣一來,人民會更快更易看到結果,倒過來指責他們。

註 本文不少數據及論據都來自Richard Rogerson, The Impact of Labor Taxes on Labor Supply: An International Perspective.(2010)

2011年3月9日 星期三

舊世界沒落 新世界興起

2 月28日,周一。2008年的金融海嘯帶來2009年全球性中央銀行濫發鈔票行為,令金融資產升值。經濟增長較快的新興工業國如中國、印度等更出現通脹,上述是貨幣政策帶來的因,與需求關係不大。

食物價格上升原因包括氣候及勞動成本上升,加上油價上升刺激肥料價上升,亦與需求關係不大,因此不能透過加息壓抑眼前通脹率。

過去10年中國因為是出口拉動型經濟,GDP增長率保持在年率10%,CPI升幅每年亦只有2%,因為從出口賺回來的錢,不是變成資本性投資便用作購買美國債券。2009年起改為內需拉動為主,甚至GDP增長率只有8%,通脹率仍會加快上升,因為「錢」轉向國內消費。

換言之中國、印度等新興工業國在可見將來,仍需面對較高通脹率。如貨幣政策一下子收得太緊恐怕出現1994年情況,引發資本市場較大幅度調整(當年CPI升幅達雙位數)。相信目前沒有此需要,看來中國貨幣政策仍以微調為主。

倒強人易 改一黨專政難

中國同中東國家不同,中國是一黨領導,主席只有兩屆任期。中東大部分國家都是強人領導,當強人年紀漸大,很易走上眾叛親離之路,其政權十分容易被推翻,反之中國國家主席在老化之前早已下台。推翻強人政權易、改變一黨領導難,除非中國領導層出現類似戈爾巴喬夫的人物,引致內部改變。

今天利比亞局面較1979年底伊朗王朝倒台前更麻煩(因伊朗事件沒有向其他地區擴散。加上1980年列根上台後美國採用高利率政策,寧可出現經濟衰退、亦要壓抑油價)。過去WTI一向較Brent略為便宜,但2010年起兩者差距達19美元一桶,主要是反映中東向歐洲供油的不穩定性。

最近WTI亦跟隨Brent升上100美元一桶,100美元以上一桶油價對全球經濟帶來很壞影響(2008年中油價升至147美元一桶、引發金融海嘯),尤其是印度、中國等用油大國,將面對巨大通脹壓力。如油價維持在100美元一桶以上一年,擔心另一場經濟衰退在醞釀中。

另一問題是:2009年3月開始的美股上升,到底可維持多久?在面對100美元以上一桶的油價下,聯儲局再推出QE3的機會迅速下降,因中東局勢令投資者對美元進一步不信任,貝南奇很快面對「巧婦無米炊」局面。

2010年是stock pickers' market,2010年11月起Russell 2000指數與標普500出現背馳至今已有3個多月,此一背馳現象可維持多久?世上發生的重要事故(Event)在過去同股市大方向關係不大。例如1950年6月25日韓戰爆發,一年後道指上升14.7%;1962年10月22日古巴越洲飛彈危機,一年後道指上升33.9%;1963年11月22日甘乃迪總統被行刺,一年後股市上升19.6%;1990年8月2日伊拉克入侵科威特,一年後道指上升7%;2001年9月11日紐約世貿中心被飛機撞毀,三個月後股市上升10.8%(一年後跌3.8%)。

換言之所有重要事件發生後只會帶來短期衝擊,對中(三個月)、長期(一年)投資市場而言沒有大影響,反之經濟政策例如1978年中國決定改革開放、1997年香港特區政府的「八萬五房屋政策」威力才大。

1967年至1981年是香港人人可分享經濟繁榮的時代。隨着中國政府改革開放政策落實,首先受害是本港低收入人士,1981年本港製造業工人收入是大學剛畢業生收入的70%,到1997年低收入者(因製造業工人人數已大減)只是大學剛畢業生收入50%。

2008年9月雷曼事件發生後,2009年3月QE及去年QE2出現,才產生資產升值潮。但QE2到今年4月屆滿,未來投資策略將改為如何在利率上升中獲利?


電腦化、網絡時代來臨對中產階級是致命傷。1997年香港中產階級月入2、3萬港元的職位,到2011年薪金仍停留在此水平,反之最高收入1%家庭由1997年至今,手上財富上升超過2倍。香港已進入富者愈富時代,在此情況下一般人如何不產生仇富心理?許多人勤勤力力一世都買不起一個似樣的住宅單位,反之超級富豪可以豪花80萬元買個手袋送給女朋友。這是一個什麼樣的世界?

有錢人同一般人在投資方面最大的分別是耐性。他們不需要每月賺錢養家,甚至不需要賺短錢,只會在黃金極不值錢時收集,在大部分人睇淡樓價時入貨。投資股票亦一樣,他們明白在科技上出現突破,例如蘋果及騰訊(700)才會帶來大量財富。資源價格循環周期見底時才投資資源股。


在經濟復蘇過程中,利率續步推高令債券吸引力漸消失(10年期債券利率已由2.48厘上升3.65厘。房利美30年期固定按揭利率由4.1厘上升到4.81厘)。在利率逐步上升壓力下美股會否出現類似2009年8月至2010年7月A股式調整?換言之今年4月會否是美股見頂月?2005年至2007年那些利用ARMS去買樓的美國小業主,所涉及的資金約6000億美元,其中20%已止蝕離場、餘下者約50%最少已遲了30天供款。

QE等如沃爾瑪47年淨收入

上述ARMS一般有5年低供款期、目前已陸續到期,對未來美國樓市構成另一壓力。隨着低供款期過去,一般供款金額可上升30%到40%,今年美國銀行界正努力協助這批供樓人士,將供款利率改為固定利率樓按。

生意淡薄、不如賭博(投機)。以沃爾瑪為例過去12個月營業額4190億美元、淨收入(不是純利)150億美元,即毛收益率只有3.57%(上述未扣除稅項、利息、折舊等開支)。沃爾瑪背後有多少人在流汗水?但一次量化寬鬆政策,政府可創造7000億美元,相等於47年沃爾瑪的收益……在如此環境下怎叫年輕人努力工作?!QE及QE2對「資產價值」的影響,遠超過普通人一生努力的成果,形成人人投機、不願腳踏實地去工作。

1999年至今S&P GSCI現貨指數(代表24種商品,包括礦、金、能源及農產品)升幅超過3倍。2008年受世界性衰退影響一度回落43%,2009及2010兩年升幅超過81%,即收復失地有餘。商品價格周期性很大,上一次由1969年起步、1981年結束共12年。這次又如何?

由2000年起計商品價格已上升11年。70年代食品及原材料價格上升推動工資上升,打工仔獲加薪後購買力上升,反過來又推動食品及原材料推上升,直到1979年底伏爾克出任聯儲局主席,將短期利率推高至22厘(1980年CPI升幅亦只有15%)。在實質利率7厘壓力下,打斷惡性通脹循環,1981年起利率回落,加上低通脹帶來20年繁榮期(利率回落可推高資產價格上升)。

直到2001年發生911事件後,格老擔心美國出現類似1990年起的日式通縮,聯同貝南奇開始另一段「負利率」時代。負利率初期推動樓價上升,產生財富效應,帶來2003年至2007年的繁榮。2006年輪到食物及原材料價升幅擴大,貝南奇開始大幅加息令美國樓價回落,引發CDO危機,到2008年演變成全球金融海嘯。

股樓變trader's market小心接火棒

2009年3月推出QE後美股才止跌回升,2010年4月QE到期後美股又回落,2010年6月聯儲局宣布11月起再推出QE2、美股才止跌回升,加上2010年內美國上市企業動用3570億美元回購股份,是2007年以來最多,亦是股市上升理由。今年又如何?個人認為2011年是十分難投資一年,大方向是上落市。

2009年香港人在內地工作有21.8萬多人,2010年下降至18萬,即去年共有3.8萬多港人回流香港。其中有多少人賣掉內地樓回港買樓不清楚。2009年前100港元兌100多元人民幣,現在只兌80多元,即買人民幣的話滙率上賺了20%;2009年及2010年內地樓價上升近倍(香港不足50%);內地加息後供樓利息負擔上升……。上述因素是去年本港細價樓大升部分原因,去年不少港人由深圳回流香港買樓。

1997年8月後香港股市及樓市皆進入trader's market,價格可隨時回落50%,或上升100%。做一個成功的trader絕對不容易,例如去年11月前被睇好的股份如汽車、零售、服裝、鞋類等忽然統統改為被睇淡。你能否及時審時度勢、隨波逐流?一不小心便接了人家的火棒。

成功的trader在入市前必須考慮價格、波幅及成交額等因素,亦須顧及基礎分析及技術分析。當趨勢形成後股價一定不是最低價,但那時大方向才十分清晰,不妨加入。同樣道理上升趨勢完結後股價一定不是在最高價……。其次波幅大及成交額少的股份投入的資金宜細,波幅細而成交額大的股份投入的資金不妨多一點。

如果一開始便動用大量資金投入股價波幅大而成交不多的股份,一下子被綁便十分難脫身。至於那些每天成交額不足50萬股的股份還是少沾手為佳。沒有人能百戰百勝,或遲或早會面對虧損,投資成功與失敗分別在於如何處理手上的虧損。不應該讓小損失變成大損失,更不應該讓大損失變成無可挽回致命損失。因此止蝕是必需,千萬不可讓虧損出現滾雪球(愈滾愈大)現象。

不如意事常八九,即十次投資中有八次(甚至九次)出現虧蝕並不出奇,只要常記「止蝕唔止賺」,一、兩次成功的投資已足夠抵償八、九次失敗的投資。在投資市場錯過最佳入貨時機時應該點做?

一、問問自己上述投資潛在升幅仍有多少? 例如2009年5月港股剛起步上升便遇上豬流感,不少人因此錯過最佳入貨時機。

2009年5月豬流感過後應如何處理?一般升市可維持三年,自然可以追入。反之今時今日股市上升已有兩年多,應不應該再追貨?情況有如2010年下半年當金價升穿1300美元後應不應該追貨的答案一樣。

二、看看其他市場有沒有更佳機會? 2010年初不少內地投資者問:他們錯過了2009年4月投資一線城市住宅樓機會,應怎麼辦?個人回應是:投資二線城市住宅樓宇。

三、何謂高風險、低回報期?即恒指O在18倍以上。何謂高回報、低風險期?即恒指O在12倍以下。至於樓價高低如何去決定?如樓價是租金回報20年或以下是低風險、高回報期,樓價是租金回報30年或以上是高風險、低回報期。

1900年美國35%人口從事農業,今天只有2%,但美國農產品供應量沒有減少。1945年美國34%人口從事製造業,今天只有12%,但美國工業產品供應量亦沒有減少(加上來自海外的工業產品,反而出現過剩)。上述情況正在中國重演,中國農民及工人數目在未來大幅減少,但產量卻維持甚至上升。

2009年起中國步入後工業期(2009年消費只佔中國GDP 37%,在美國消費佔GDP 71%)。今年開始中國更進入高鐵時代,過去大部分中國人只在農村內走動然後跑到大城市,今天中國人在全國流動形成各城市重新組合。

過去中國製造業以出口為主,工廠自然建在沿海各城市,未來中國製造業內需佔很重要地位,需重新選址。即每個城市將因應本身地理、人口、資源等因素出現再分工。例如上海愈來愈金融化,但製造業則漸遠離上海(因工資成本、土地成本不化算)。成都愈來愈旅遊化,重慶由重工業走向電子科技等。

美國債市未來10年或爆煲

美國從來不是大負債國,只有第二次世界大戰期間為了支付軍費開支,政府負債才超過當年GDP 100%,其後已迅速下降。2001年小布殊上台後透過退稅及擴大醫療福利等開支,另加兩場戰爭(即攻打伊拉克及阿富汗),美國財赤便大升。

8年任期後美國政府負債倍升至10.05萬億美元,奧巴馬上台後為應付金融海嘯至今又增加負債2.5萬億美元。國會財政部估計到2020年美國負債將達23萬億美元、相等於當年GDP 160%。未來10年美國債券市場面臨崩潰,即債市已是一個計時炸彈,能否在炸彈未爆之前將之拆掉?木宰羊。

貨幣政策有本身的局限性,例如它不能提升勞工的競爭力(此乃美國失業率如此高理由),反而引來資產泡沫(例如1999年前的科網股泡沫、2007年前的物業泡沫及今天的債券泡沫)。1967年佛利民在美國經濟會議上曾發表演說︰「任何貨幣政策都有後遺症,中央銀行在採用時應萬分小心」。

大部分經濟學家皆明白貨幣政策只可改變「價格」而非「供求」。透過價格改變去影響人們對通脹、通縮的預期,從而刺激投資及消費(或延遲投資或消費),上述做法可產生短期效果,但對長期經濟沒有作用。貨幣政策可用作減少經濟的波動(例如價格出現急升或急跌時),而非帶來真正的繁榮。

上述演說已發表了40多年,但各國中央銀行有多少間遵守?舊世界永遠向新世界欠債,最終是舊世界沒落、新世界興起。1900年亞洲是舊世界、美國是新世界。2000年起亞洲是新世界、美國是舊世界。

2010年10月26日 星期二

4萬億美元,你discount咗未?

■近日陸續有新股上市,各位投資者有為如何選擇而煩惱嗎?今日「DNA」一欄為大家對本周推出的新股作出一個小總結,並提出了三種策略以供參考。請留意第34頁。

■初哥上路總是會遇到挫折的,國企也不例外。由於承辦海外工程的經驗不足,中鐵建(1186)最近宣布在中東的輕軌項目出現龐大虧損,辛思維在25頁的「冷熱財庫」專欄中,為我們作出剖析。

■香港樓價升至天高,升斗小市民即使能夠入市也大都淪為房奴,一生為供樓而活。筆銘在27頁的專欄中分析箇中原因,並提出了一些建議,例如加設炒樓稅,希望可以壓抑樓市炒風。

10月26日,周二。隔晚美股造好,周末的二十國集團(G20)財長會議未能確立削減貿易失衡目標,市場又預期聯儲局將會推出新一輪量化寬鬆(QE2)貨幣政策,拖累美元下跌,加上美國二手樓銷售較預期強勁,均支持大市向上,但尾市上升動力減弱。道指收市上升31點,納指高收11點。港股高開近一百點,迅即掉頭回落,其後於23600點水平上落。恒指全日輕微下跌26點或0.1%,收市報23601點,成交金額833億元。國企指數逆市高收16點或0.1%,收報13642點。期指下跌90點,收報23167點,高水幅度縮窄至16點。

聯儲局一周後議息,市場對次輪量寬(QE2)規模多大,眾說紛紜,但可以肯定的是,揭盅如果只有5000億美元,那便跟「無事發生」沒有多大分別,皆因資產價格跑在QE2之前,buy on rumors,sell on facts,5000億美元曾幾何時是「天文數字」,但今時今日,點夠撐起個市?

怎樣才夠、有無數計?這個問法,就好像在說聯儲局所做的一切,都是為了頂住資產市場,未免與事實不符,但在銀紙(美元)供應愈來愈多價值貶個不停下,QE(不管多少輪)一個毋庸置疑的效果,就是逼人投身股海以至實物,竭盡所能避免購買力受到摧殘。

聯邦基金利率 -6.8%?

老畢沒有未卜先知之能,但市場上叻人甚多,高盛就計過條數,認為次輪量寬一經啟動,聯儲局將分階段購入總值2萬億至4萬億美元的國債和其他資產。這個估算準確與否,有待事實證明;更值得注意的是,高盛根據什麼得出這個結果。

該行認為,目前0-0.25厘的聯邦基金利率,跟聯儲局用作制訂利率水平的「泰勒法則」(the Taylor Rule)揭示的聯邦基金利率水平高了700點子(7厘)。以0.2厘為當前聯邦基金利率的參考水平,高盛的話等於說,按照「泰勒法則」(利率處於哪一水平,視乎實際通脹率和失業率各自偏離目標多遠),聯邦基金利率的「適當」水平應為負6.8厘(0.2%-7%= -6.8%)。由於名義(nominal)利率已降無可降(實際上也不可能處於負數),聯儲局得通過非傳統手段(主要是購買國債和按揭抵押證券),以達到等同於把聯邦基金利率下調至負6.8厘的寬鬆政策效果。

值得注意的是,在這700點子的利率差距中,聯儲局首輪量寬(QE1)加上其他刺激經濟措施,已經成功「填補」了當中約400點子(根據高盛的計算,QE1佔130點子、政府財政刺激措施佔240點子、聯儲局承諾維持超低利率一段長時間佔餘下的30點子,合共400點子)。換句話說,假設奧巴馬政府不再推出新的財政措施,刺激經濟的責任由聯儲局一力承擔,央行購買資產的規模,便必須足以填補上述700點子中尚未「處理」的300點子(700點子-400點子=300點子),意味聯儲局購買資產的規模,必須產生等同於減息3厘的政策效果。

高盛如何得出聯儲局在次輪(或更多)量寬中須購入2萬億至4萬億美元資產的結論,相信是投資者最感興趣的問題。條數是這樣計的:每1萬億美元等同於減息75點子(0.75厘),要達到聯邦基金利率再下調3厘之效,聯儲局須購入合共4萬億美元資產(每1萬億美元相當於75點子,屈指一算,4萬億美元便等於300點子了)。

不過,QE說到底都不是常規貨幣政策,執行起來涉及的成本高於傳統減息手段,例如聯儲局資產負債表不斷擴大,一旦按市值入賬(mark-to-market),不排除錄得數額不菲的虧損。如此一來,央行在跟國會周旋時,難免陷入窘境,嚴重處足以影響聯儲局的獨立性;至於貨幣基礎一再擴大,為通脹於未來急劇惡化埋下伏筆,更不待言。考慮到這一點,高盛為新一輪QE的實際規模打了一個「折頭」;雖則中間落墨,但聯儲局在新一輪量寬中購入的資產,規模仍不會少於2萬億美元。

美國本土股票互惠基金雖不斷錄得資金淨流出(持續了多少個月,老畢已記不起,總之有一蹶不振之象),但從新興市場股債盛況以至破紀錄的資金流入可見,散戶並非對銀紙貶值購買力每下愈況無動於中,而是一窩蜂地從美國和其他成熟市場,湧到經濟前景更佳投資回報更豐厚兼且滙率具上升潛力的新興市場,亞洲就多得美國唔少。

然而,正如前述,今天對企業估值舉足輕重的,已不再是公司盈利,而是投資者discount了多大規模的QE。毒會上癮酒會上癮,量化寬鬆政策雖非為推高資產市場而設,但今日股債商品已形同上了酒癮毒癮的人,QE「劑量」稍有不足,市場恐怕立時就潰不成軍。

就如企業派成績表,「符合預期」、「勝於預期」、「不如預期」,對股市的影響差之毫釐謬以千里;但願不是所有人都像高盛這般「計數」,discount了最少2萬億、最多4萬億美元的QE,否則股市就凶多吉少了。

股神估值方法大揭秘

股神畢非德是日「紅爆」財經版,皆因有關股神、其投資旗艦巴郡、中國投資項目比亞迪(1211)的新聞消息,實在是多不勝數。先講近期強勢畢露的汽車板塊,比亞迪派發首九個月成績單,純利僅僅上升4%,至24.33億元人民幣。首三季業績輕微增長僅是小事一樁,但計一計第三季才知道「大件事」,純利暴瀉達到最差劣的九成九,僅賺得1134萬元人仔,令市場大跌眼鏡。

歸咎「死因」,比亞迪的汽車銷量下跌是致命傷,繼8月份同比下滑19%至3.11萬輛之後,其9月份同比再下降25%至3.31萬輛。比亞迪稍早前已經推遲了向美國市場出口電動汽車的計劃,本月則因違法佔地被罰款兼沒收已建成的七幢廠房,盈利下跌算是雪上加霜。比亞迪被基金洗倉,以接近全日最低位51.05元收市,跌幅高達10.3%。

另一邊廂,持有比亞迪作為投資的巴郡,被視為股神熱門候選接班人之一的李祿,忽然拒絕「接棒」。李祿決定維持現狀,繼續在美國擔當對沖基金經理,與另一名屬意繼任人一道,先後退出競逐之列。股神惟有物色名不見經傳,39歲的對沖基金經理托德庫姆斯(Todd Combs),出任巴郡的投資經理。

據報,庫姆斯會先負責管理巴郡1000億美元資產的一部分投資,與其現時在Castle Point Capital管理約4億美元的金融服務業股票比較,能否勝任還得走着瞧!

最後要講到的,是股神的「價值投資法」。股神一直深得投資者的景仰,主要是其把握入市時機的準繩度,可以說得上數一數二。而股神對股市的估值方法,又是否深不可測呢?股神早已在2001年的《財富》雜誌中,向投資者公開其估值的秘訣,老畢在此再引用一番,以公諸同好。

原來股神的估值方法相當簡單,以美國所有上市股票的市值除以國民生產總值(GNP)【圖】,所計算出的百分比將可反映一切。若然比率升至空前的高水平的話,即在股市賺取的回報已超越整體經濟的增長速度,事情於理不合,代表強烈的警告訊號已經發出。股神認為,當比率跌到70%至80%的水平,股市實屬便宜;相反,當比率升至接近200%,即1999至2000年科網股泡沫爆破時間,投資者還在投資股市的話,與玩火無異。看一看附圖,比率正由低位60%,悄悄回升至超過100%。根據股神的說法,現階段而言,美股略嫌偏貴了。

2010年10月24日 星期日

G20會議召開 各國意見分歧 中國願考慮經常賬目標建議

二十國集團(G20)財長會議昨天在南韓慶州召開。在討論最激烈的滙率問題上,成員國談判的焦點似乎已落在美國公開提倡的經常賬目標,亦即各國要限制自己的貿易盈餘或赤字。此建議引起G20嚴重分歧,但取態最關鍵的中國據報願意考慮,以換取美國放棄直接針對其人民幣滙率政策。

美國財長蓋特納去信各國財金代表,表示持續擁有盈餘的國家應該透過結構性、財政及滙率政策來推動本土增長,而美國這些有龐大預算及貿易赤字的國家則應採納可持久的中期財政目標。他又說,G20成員不應刻意讓滙率貶值,來得到不公平的競爭優勢。

限制於GDP 4%以下

消息人士透露,蓋特納建議把各國經常賬盈餘或赤字限制在其國內生產總值(GDP)的4%以下。美國與G20會議東道主南韓都支持這措施。

分析指出,蓋特納的建議明顯是衝着中國而來,主要目的是迫使人民幣升值。消息人士昨天深夜透露,中國已明確表示,反對在今天公開的會後聲明提及經常賬目標,亦不能提及任何形式的外滙規範。這意味今天的聲明很大機會不會有重大宣布。

不過,與會人士透露,中國對此其實持開放態度。官員指出,聲明仍可以其他方式提及蓋特納的建議,令這建議可繼續納入各國考慮範圍之內。

《華爾街日報》引述法國央行一份內部文件指出,美國的建議給予政策彈性,確保各經濟體表現一致,既可緩和緊張關係,又可毋須要求任何國家推行特定的滙率政策。該文件說:「這可能解釋了為何中國和美國在現階段支持這個措施。」但文件又指出,其他有盈餘的經濟體的反對聲音很大。

日本德國強烈反對

南韓希望經常賬目標可調解中美分歧。南韓一名高級官員表示,如果只集中在滙率問題上,討論就會模糊了真正的焦點,那就是強勁而可持續增長,滙率只是其中一個工具。該官員表示,中國視之為眾多建議之一,並說這比單談論滙率好,因為這令中國可以繼續使用包括滙率在內的任何工具來達到其經濟目標。

經常賬目標對中國的影響相對較小,因為G20中,沙地阿拉伯、德國和俄羅斯的經常賬盈餘更大。而且,中國人民銀行副行長易綱上月曾表示,中國計劃推出政策,使經常賬盈餘相對GDP比率在3至5年內,從2009年的5.8%跌至4%以下。不過,大量G20成員國提出反對。正反兩大陣營主要是出口主導型經濟(即擁有龐大貿易盈餘)的國家和內需為主的國家,其中日本和德國的反對最強烈。

日本財務相野田佳彥表示,訂立具體目標數字是不切實際的。德國經濟部長布呂德勒警告,不要重回計劃經濟思維。日本和德國表示,政府無法製造這種宏觀經濟結果,因為貿易盈餘基本上是私人企業和個人經濟活動造成的。

不少新興國家亦反對。俄羅斯副財長潘金預期,今天公布的會後聲明不會有目標數字;但亦有國家表態支持,加拿大財長弗萊厄蒂說,美國的建議邁向正確方向。有法國官員私下說,此建議可以考慮。

蓋特納表示,如果訂下經常賬目標,國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)將擔當監管角色,每半年發表進展報告。有加拿大官員表示,未必真的定出實數目標,重點是龐大貿易順差和逆差的國家都要縮窄雙方之間的差距。

2010年10月20日 星期三

貨幣戰還擊 中國加息一舉數得

人民銀行在周二突然宣布加息,把金融市場殺了一個措手不及;人行行長周小川一個星期前在美國仍堅稱今年內不會加息,外界認為人民銀行仍會以提高銀行存款準備金率的方式緊縮銀根(今年已調高了四次),最後各方的預測均告落空。加息決定對中國來說並不容易,因為日本、歐洲等國仍然保持寬鬆貨幣政策,美國更準備推出第二輪量化寬鬆,再次大印鈔票試圖刺激經濟;在歐美日發達國維持寬鬆、利率在零水平徘徊之際,中國加息將會拉闊國際息差,令人民幣利率跟美歐利率進一步拉闊,短期內肯定會吸引大批熱錢流入,人民幣升值的壓力加大,資產泡沫會更加嚴重……。

在公開聲明中,人民銀行解釋加息是為了遏抑通脹,但問題是:通脹在今年第二季開始即轉趨嚴重,為何人民銀行遲遲未動,不願提高利率?過去官方媒體的解釋,是通脹因各種「特殊因素」促成,並未形成趨勢,故此不宜輕言加息;當然,加息尚有上述提及的吸引熱錢流入等後遺症,故此現階段不宜加息云云。反對加息的一派忽略了內地的「基本國情」──在○八金融海嘯發生前,中國政府的貨幣政策是嚴防通脹,在二○○七年因應「流動性」過剩和通脹壓力日增,央行先後六次上調存貸款基準利率(最後一次在○七年十二月),而在○八年初,胡錦濤主席仍然以對抗通脹作為當年的經濟工作重點!至於中國的減息周期始於○八年九月,主要目的在應對國際金融危機,此後五次下調貸款利率、四次下調存款利率;不斷降息的同時,中國政府從○八年開始投入四萬億元刺激經濟,令原來就極度寬鬆的「流動性」更加寬鬆,「水浸」的結果,是房地產價格一飛沖天,民眾怨聲載道,政府動用不同方法都無法遏得住。房地產以外,內地的農產品、貴金屬等都出現狂炒熱潮,利息偏低加上政府「倒水」救市,令全國變成一個大賭場,如果不想辦法煞住,通脹很快就會如脫韁之馬,民生問題會變得日益嚴峻。

內地八月份CPI同比上升百分之三點五,不但超過了今年全年要保持通脹率在百分之三的警戒線規定,通脹高企也令內地持續七個月出現負利率(CPI百分之三點五,一年、二年和三年的利息分別為二點二五厘、二點七九厘、三點三三厘),現在預測中國會否出現加息周期,應要估計人民銀行會否一直調高利率直至「消滅」負利率為止;如果以此為目標,假設現在的CPI升幅不變,而人民銀行每次加息○點二五厘,單是「追上」一年期利率,央行也需再加息四次。如果通脹持續攀升,加息次數將會更加頻密。人行聲言以遏通脹為加息原因,若以「消滅」負利率作標準,中國加息周期肯定已經開始。

聯儲局的量化寬鬆政策令美元不斷貶值、促成全球的大宗商品、能源價格等上漲,中國陷入這個「流動性」泛濫的通脹漩渦,在國內負利率和美元貶值雙重夾擊之下,中國政府如不及時應對,恐怕內要受通脹壓力逼迫,外則要受美國為首的發達國要求人民幣升值施壓,加息應是其中可化解各方壓力的一招;中國決定加息,是繼印度和巴西之後,另一個主要新興市場國家以提高利率宣示退出寬鬆貨幣政策的決心;另一方面,加息也反映中國政府寧願放慢經濟增長(十二.五規劃據報會調低GDP年增幅至百分之六)也要壓抑通脹的決心。更重要的是,在當前的貨幣戰陰雲密布之際,中國開始實行擺脫美元的獨立貨幣政策,從內地經濟發展的需要決定利息和滙率去向;中國加息會吸引熱錢流入、推高人民幣滙價,客觀上也會發揮滙率升值的作用,這方面可以回應了美國的施壓,但中國的緊縮政策也會影響美元滙率(人行加息後美元即彈升)及壓低商品價格,有利減少輸入通脹壓力。中美博弈,中國終於正面出招,加息決定應是正確一步。

2010年10月11日 星期一

從相互需要到適者生存 「大國政治」捲土重來

2010年10月12日

財經路向透視

從滙率戰到網絡商業間諜案,從吵得不可開交的國際會議到非洲資源的新一輪爭奪戰,可以看出「大國政治」已經捲土重來。

新興經濟體——尤其是中國、俄羅斯、印度和巴西實力的增長,正在改變各國外交和國防部門的工作重心,同時推動着金融市場的發展,重塑全球商業環境。

脆弱共識

美國前國務卿基辛格上月在日內瓦發表演講時,把當今新興國家崛起之勢比作十九世紀或二十世紀初期「大國誕生」的方式;大約百年前的那場國家競爭,最終釀成了第一次世界大戰。

「可能會發生混亂,但一旦出現混亂的局面,新秩序早晚就會出現。」基辛格表示,如今這批新興大國,尤其是中國,正讓國際關係和世界體系變得動盪起伏;他認為,各國領袖應協同努力,盡量避免這一過程「讓人類遭受前所未有的苦難」。

雖然2008年的全球金融危機似乎讓各國在經濟互相依存和共同監管等問題上形成了某種脆弱的共識,但這種共識已經基本宣告破裂。日前,IMF總裁施特勞斯卡恩痛陳全球合作的減弱趨勢,「合作勢頭沒有消失,但顯然正在弱化,這才是真正的威脅;任何人都要記住,對於全球的危機,不存在一種『國內』的解決方案」。

私人部門分析人士把這種變化描述得更加露骨。怡和保險顧問集團(Jardine Lloyd Thompson)信貸和政治風險部門負責人Elizabeth Stephens說:「僅僅一年前,他們都還以為各自相互需要;但現在是適者生存。」

有人說,這一幕是不可避免的——其中一個重要原因就是全球金融體系愈來愈不平衡,新興國家貨幣升值壓力增大。

許多國家依賴出口導向型的經濟增長,以促進就業,保證社會穩定,這必然會導致各國在滙率和獲取資源問題上出現衝突。大家都想壓低滙率,同時確保自己拿到便宜的燃料和糧食。

中國就處於這種緊張格局的中心,其中既有滙率的原因,也有其對資源需求巨大的原因,但問題並不局限於中國和美國形成的所謂「G2」格局。

另類武裝

有人發現,日本等亞洲國家的主權財富基金正在追隨中國和中東國家的腳步,爭奪非洲等地的糧食、礦產和能源資源。這種資源戰對二十一世界的影響,可能堪比常規戰爭對二十世紀的影響。

「我們只不過是在用另一種方式武裝自己罷了。」Investec全球策略師Michael Power說:「我們沒必要把滙率戰搞得那麼駭人聽聞——但事實上確實存在某種衝突。」

Ireland Relies on Treasury Cash to Avoid Greece-Style Rescue

Ireland expects its 20 billion-euro ($28 billion) cash pile to stave off a Greek-style rescue, as the government taps the funds to avoid paying record rates to borrow.

The government canceled next week’s debt auction and another scheduled for November after the yield on 10-year Irish bonds rose to a record 454 basis points above benchmark German bunds. Finance Minister Brian Lenihan has said Ireland is “fully funded” through the middle of 2011. The country has 4.4 billion euros of bonds maturing next year, compared with about 27 billion euros in Greece.

“Twenty billion euros and the lack of redemptions buys the government some time,” said Jens Peter Soerensen, an analyst at Danske Bank A/S, Denmark’s biggest bank, who recommends investors buy Irish Treasury bills. “At some point, investors are going to look at 2 percent on a German bund or 6 percent on an Irish bond, and say let’s buy Ireland.”

Lenihan plans to travel to New York this week to convince investors that Ireland will fix its financial system without bankrupting the state. The government’s bill to bail out the nation’s banks may reach 50 billion euros, stoking concern that it would become the first nation after Greece to seek aid and draw from the 750 billion-euro rescue fund set up by the European Union and International Monetary Fund set up in May.

The extra yield investors demand for holding 10-year Irish bonds rather than German bunds fell to 423 basis points from the Sept. 29 high of 454 basis points. The slide occurred after the government canceled plans to raise as much as 3 billion euros in bond sales.

Euro Peripherals

Only Greece’s yield premium over German bunds is wider than Ireland’s among the so-called euro peripherals. It was 754 basis points on Oct. 8, compared with Portugal’s 399 basis points, Spain’s 174 basis points and Italy’s 149 basis points.

Lenihan, 51, will lay out his plan next month to narrow the budget deficit to 3 percent of the gross domestic product by the end of 2014. The fiscal deficit is set to increase to 32 percent of GDP this year with the government’s pledge to inject funds into lenders led by Anglo Irish Bank Corp.

Ireland has pumped 22.9 billion euros into Dublin-based Anglo Irish since the bank was seized in January 2009 as bad loans soared with the collapse of the property market. The lender may need an extra 6.4 billion euros of capital, plus another 5 billion euros in the event of unexpected losses. Lenihan said last month the government also will take a majority stake in Allied Irish Banks Plc.

Ireland’s government needs spending cuts and tax increases of about 4 billion euros in 2011,Christopher Pryce, a director at Fitch Ratings in London, said in a Bloomberg Television interview on Oct. 7.

‘Impressing the Markets’

“That is probably sufficient to maintain confidence in Ireland,” Pryce said. “It is a matter of impressing the markets with their determination.”

Austerity measures aimed at reducing the budget deficit are “the right thing to do,” said Daniel Leigh, an IMF economist.

“There’s no alternative right now,” Leigh said during an Oct. 7 presentation at the Bruegel Institute in Brussels. “There’s a lot of pressure from the markets.”

Credit-default swaps linked to Irish debt ended last week at 430 basis points, down 17 basis points from Oct.7, according to CMA prices. Swaps for Greece were at 727 basis points, making them the most expensive in Europe.

The country’s National Treasury Management Agency will repay 11 percent of total borrowings in 2011, according to data compiled by Bloomberg. That compares with about 20 percent for Spain, 18 percent for Portugal and 17.5 percent for Italy.

Yield Gap

“They are taking a gamble that the budget will deliver and get spreads down,” said Alan McQuaid, chief economist at Bloxham Stockbrokers in Dublin. “If that doesn’t happen, maybe you skip a few auctions at the beginning of the year. But at some point, you have to go to the market. If you can’t go to the market, then you have to look at outside aid.”

Greece covered 8.5 billion euros of bond redemptions in May after receiving 20 billion euros from euro-region allies and the IMF, the first portion of a three-year aid package.

“The huge redemptions coming up for Greece forced the issue in May,” said Anke Richter, a strategist at London-based brokerage Conduit Capital Markets. “The bottom line with Ireland is that it’s funded till next summer.”

Lenihan has time to get the country’ borrowing costs down by convincing investors that Ireland will pay its bills, said Soerensen of Danske Bank. The yield on the 10-year Irish bond is 6.48 percent, up from 4.5 percent six months ago.

“The government has a significant problem” unless yields fall, said Soerensen of Danske Bank, which owns Dublin-based National Irish Bank. “But it isn’t under any immediate pressure to raise cash, and even in the unlikely event that the government had to call upon IMF/EU aid, investors would still get paid. There isn’t going to be a default.”